Surgery is recommended when medical management fails, for emergencies like bloat or pyometra, or preventives like neutering to reduce cancer risks.

Modern anaesthesia includes both injectable and inhalant anaesthetics with monitoring (heart rate, oxygen, blood pressure). Depending upon the procedure, your veterinarian will decide on an anaesthetic protocol to ensure safety; pre-op exams minimise risks, especially in seniors.

Multimodal approach: pre-op opioids, local blocks, constant-rate infusions, and NSAIDs tailored to pet size and health